陳民峰
生物多樣性(Biodiversity)是指生命變化的程度,是一種比較新穎、發展不久的概念。我們的地球孕育了許多不同的環境、生物種類,甚至還有同一種類內的生物存有不同的模樣,這些繽紛而多元的姿態,形成一種交互影響的動態平衡。這種動態平衡不但關乎人類存亡,更是成為一種美學或道德價值:「每個生物都是獨一無二的、每個生物都是息息相關的,而我與其他生命、整個地球都是重要存在」。有了這樣的美感基礎與道德情感,就有潛力實踐愛護地球的環保與保育行動。
生物多樣性包含了那些範圍?由大至小可以分為:
■生態系多樣性Ecosystem diversity
■物種多樣性Species diversity
■遺傳多樣性 genetic diversity
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生態系多樣性
生態系多樣性,是指環境的多樣形態,也是國小學生最直接認識的生物多樣性。在小二的綜
合課有觀察「校園的環境」,發現校園中必然擁有陰暗潮濕的地方,或者向陽乾燥的場合,儘管小如校園還是有細微環境的差異,這就是棲地中的微棲地(microhabitat)。
「什麼樣的環境造就什麼樣的人」,用在生態學上就是「什麼樣的環境也能讓什麼樣的生物存活」。學生觀察環境的不同,再來發現不同環境下有什麼不同生物。過去筆者在外面分享蝴蝶知能時,就有提過「不同的蝴蝶會出沒在不同的環境」,也許有些學校看不到蝴蝶的原因並非沒有棲地,而是沒被注意到而已。
等到五年級,在社會課學習到世界地理的概念以後,六年級下學期自然科就會有相當大的篇幅描述世界的多種環境與生物。許多生物為了適應環境,而演化出各種「特異功能」,使得這些生物能夠在這特殊地點存活。此時就可以跟學生討論:到底是環境造就了生物,還是生物選擇了環境?
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生態系多樣性出現於遊戲中?
雖然課本或老師有帶領學生探索生態系多樣性,但學生對學習更加深刻的,恐怕還是孩子們最有興趣的「遊戲」造成的學習。
目前國中小學生非常流行的「Minecraft」(當個創世神/麥塊)。Minecraft是由瑞士的遊戲設計師帶頭創立,目前在各國都有教育用版本。而在Minecraft遊戲中存在許多不同種類的生態系統,對應不同的溫度、降雨或降雪、生物、植披等,當學生在遊戲時必能體會到「不同的環境造就不同的動植物」,甚至劇烈影響到人類的生存模式。甚至有高年級的學生能夠說出這中間的程式參數還包含了降雨量、溫度兩大變因,使得草皮顏色、同一樹種的顏色與生長方式都略有不同。
另一方面寶可夢Pokemon(神奇寶貝/口袋怪獸)熱潮興起,目前寶可夢的新一代日月版順應Pokemon
Go熱潮,推出許多第一代舊有寶可夢(生物)在阿囉哈地區(參考夏威夷群島)上面產生的新形態。雖然是虛構遊戲,但靈成也是借鑑於「島嶼生態系」。例 如70年代年輕教師從小應該熟悉的「椰蛋樹」、「六尾」、「穿山鼠」就有了島嶼地區的新形態,而「拉達」、「喵貓」的新形態除了說明一個物種到島嶼後產生的新變化(短時間尺度的微演化)外,還牽扯到外來種對脆弱島嶼系的問題。
若是教師們保有童心,筆者提到這兩項遊戲內的內容可以參考看看,與孩子談遊戲,從遊戲中認識生態系多樣性,進一步討論生態系多樣性。若是我們想要看到更多生物,或者利用更多資源,就必須保護生態系多樣性。
此外除了孩子自己玩的遊戲,教師有沒有可能自己下去跟孩子玩遊戲呢?德國目前推出了兩個可以帶入極地氣候的桌遊,分別是「拯救企鵝」(又譯企鵝暴走)還有德國科學雜誌《GEOlin0》推出的「Meltdown」。這兩個桌上型遊戲,都以冰塊為主題,要讓動物能夠利於冰塊之上而存活。筆者推薦「拯救企鵝」適合給低年級小朋友玩,而「Meltdown」則適合讓中高年級學生參與。尤其是「Meltdown」是以自製冰塊作為桌遊,要在冰塊融化前完成遊戲來拯救北極熊。這些遊戲可以讓學生知道,大地區環境的生態系多樣性若是無法維護,很可能造成的就是許多動物跟不上適應演化的腳步,而大規模、大數量的滅亡。
物種多樣性
物種多樣性,在學術上就是一個地區範圍,所擁有的物種種類數量(並會參考生物數量),在學術界來說物種多樣性有許多種計算公式與計算方法。大致上包含了兩個方向:
■物種豐富度 species abundance
(種類數量越多,物種多樣性越高)
■物種均勻度 species evenness
(各物種之下的數量,各物種存有的個體數量越接近,物種多樣性越高)
(各物種數量差距越小,均勻度越高)
物種多樣性可以從食物鏈或者食物網來看待。如果食物鏈中,一個狩獵者可以吃三種動物,那麼其中一種動物突然變少或者滅絕,這個狩獵者還是有其他兩種替代佳餚可以打理。反過來,這一個地區中該狩獵者只能吃到唯一的一種,那麼只要那一種獵物數量有明顯影響,則狩獵者就容易受到影響。
也就是說物種多樣性越高,就代表這環境預期受到擾動時,可恢復的潛力越大。物種多樣性高,說明這些生物族群之間互動越穩定。
那怎樣造成物種多樣性豐富呢?首先要有個穩定的環境,穩定的環境讓各種生物能夠長時間適應且找到自己安身立命的位置。一般來講,在變動的環境下,擾動越多,會造成生物不容易適應;所以要創造穩定的生物群落,先要有穩定的環境。
然而另一方面,人為或者自然因素的擾動也會造成物種多樣性提高。例如生物的自然移入,或者被人為移入,甚至環境的轉變。環境變化的歷程,讓「消長」的程度不均勻,使得一個大環境中有許多種類的微棲地,使得物種多樣性提高。
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物種多樣性在學校的觀察
不論學校的生態環境好或者壞,其實都可以讓學生觀察物種多樣性的變化。
生態豐富的校園,可以讓學生去細數每一種不同的植物或者昆蟲、小動物,進行物種多樣性的調查。由於讓學生認識不同的生物種類已經不容易,因此就不用去讓學生估算或者計數數量的問題,僅讓學生紀錄、觀察生物種類有哪些,而物種總類有多少即可。
生態環境較不豐富,尤其是新創校、都市區學校,而少有適合的棲地營造時,教師可以往兩個方面進行物種多樣性的探究。
第一種思路是從無到有,閒置一塊泥土地,讓學生教師觀察記錄這塊地之後有什麼變化。通常一些先驅植物(pioneer
plant)會先在上面生長,接著可能草地越來越多草類,甚至有些動物、昆蟲出現。這種觀察比較瑣碎乏味且漫長,但相當適合隔一段時間拍照記錄,作為校園環境解說的資料來源。臺北市富陽公園上,就有中興大學協助紀錄的告示牌,上面說明原本水泥地的羽球場去除水泥、回歸泥土地後,三年之間的環境變化與生物種類,就是一種例子。
第二種思路是創造迷你的生態系統,讓學生去觀察紀錄�媕Y的物種多樣性。大一點的範圍可以是校園內的生態池、食農教育的可食地景園,小一點的範圍可以到大型魚缸、落葉堆肥區、養殖蚯蚓盆。一個穩定的生態池應有許多不同高低的水位,與不同種類、性質的水生植物,甚至會有不同的生物如蝦、螺、蝌蚪、蜻蜓豆娘、魚類等,計算難度略高。而有進行落葉堆肥、蚯蚓養殖的學校則能發現許多非蚯蚓的小型生物,例如彈尾蟲、線蟲、潮蟲、步行蟲,甚至會發現蚯蚓養殖箱中的蚯蚓可能有二∼三個種類,偏好分布在盆子的不同地方。透過這些迷你生態系統的觀察,學生可以認識原來養殖或者一種動物生存時,必然有其他生物一起共存或者競爭,甚至直接反映出環境的變化。
遺傳多樣性
遺傳多樣性就是在物種之內,物種含有基因的變化程度。這還包含了基因演化的潛力因子。在遇到環境變化時,遺傳多樣性高的物種比較容易有剩餘個體存活。
在國小階段,因為遺傳學沒有深入教學,還停留在觀察的階段,因此帶領孩子理解遺傳多樣性就從觀察開始即可。在自然科小學五年級下學期的動物單元,就有講到性狀遺傳的狀況。
蓋斑鬥魚就是一種具有遺傳多樣性的生物。蓋斑鬥魚在全世界有許多亞種,台灣的亞種相對
東南亞來講色澤偏紅而有微藍,並非偏綠色。甚至台灣各地區都還有各自的型(如三義型或南港型),甚至有些沒經過嚴謹研究的地區型(例如筆者找到過的三峽型),比較後會發現尾鰭、背鰭、體態、體色都有微妙的差異。而蓋斑鬥魚的個體也會有各種不同,例如顱型、身上的斑點之類,這種是遺傳多樣性的表現。目前學校所養的近乎都是三義型,這些三義型的蓋斑鬥魚若是野放,使得各地區的遺傳多樣性趨於一致,將會造成遺傳多樣性的減少,減緩了各地區持續演化為新物種的可能性。
事實證明,近代昆蟲的演化速度已經趨緩。另一方面遺傳多樣性降低,代表遺傳疾病的流行率可能提高,比如台灣放養的梅花鹿有相當大比率的犄角,這也增加了該生物在下一波環境變遷下可能被滅絕的機率。
如果有種菜的校園,應容易見到六條瓢蟲Cheilomenes sexmaculata與八斑盤瓢蟲Coelophora bowringii。校園中若有這兩種瓢蟲其中之一,你就會發現非常難以辨認,因為這兩種瓢蟲有非常多變的花紋,這些表現各異的遺傳性狀正是遺傳多樣性的表現。此時可以請學生拿相機蒐集各種花紋進行比較:哪些花紋比較常見,哪些比較稀有,而這些瓢蟲除了在花紋之外還有什麼共同特徵(甚至可以討論二分法應該怎樣分比較適合)。
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結語
生物多樣性,不論對孩子(學生)還是對成人(教師)來說,都可能是個陌生且新穎的名詞。筆者認為,真正重要的必非是生物多樣性的種類與詳細內容,反而是其中的價值。教師在學校裡也不必特別強調生物多樣性,而是將生態多樣性的感覺帶入校園之中,讓孩子去探究,並且懂得珍惜這顆多元且美麗的星球。
When
Children and Biodiversity Meet
M.F.Chen
張凱復 譯
Biodiversity
is a recently-developed concept which indicates the extent of life changing. The
earth has been nourishing various kinds of environments and species and
therefore created an interacting dynamic balance. This balance concerns not only
about human existence but also a moral value as well as aesthetics which entails
that every living creature is one and only and deeply-interwoven. With this
aesthetic basis and moral feelings, we can carry out the environmental
protection and preservation for the loving of our planet.
The Aspects of Biodiversity:
�� Ecosystem diversity
Species diversity
�� Genetic diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Ecosystem
diversity means the different forms of the environment which students can
observe directly. For example, in the integrative activities of second grade,
students explore the campus to find some places humid and damp or sunny and dry
where can be regarded as microhabitats.
You
are where you were brought up with. In terms of ecology, it means the
environment which makes life survive. Students observe the differences among
various surroundings to discover the life exists within. The author has stated
that different butterflies appear in different environment. Because people did
not pay enough attention, butterflies were not noticed on certain campus.
When students learn the global geological concept in the fifth grade, they will be introduced various kinds of surroundings and animals on the earth. In order to adapt themselves to the environment, many animals have evolved some specialties to survive in specific environment. And we can therefore discuss whether the environment modified the animals or the animals selected the environment.
Ecosystem Diversity in the Game?
Undoubtedly,
adopting games to explore ecosystem diversity can be more interesting and
impressive.
For
example, in the Swiss-designed game Minecraft, numerous kinds of ecosystems with
according temperature, rainfall, snow, animals and vegetation can be seen. When
playing, students will experience that different environment made different
animals. Some may have strongly affected on human beings’ survival. Senior
students can indicate the rainfall and the temperature are two major variables
which made the vegetation grow differently.
Recently, the Pokemon fever has been drawing people’s attention. It is a virtual game based on ecosystem of islands which also involved foreign species threats.
These
two games may be considered as tools of ecosystem diversity introduction. If we
want to see the fruitfulness of animals in the future, we need to take actions
to protect our ecosystem.
Moreover, there are board games such as Zany Penguins, Meltdown whose themes are
survival on the ice. Zany Penguins is suitable for lower graders, while Meltdown
for higher. These games can make students aware that if we cannot preserve the
ecosystem diversity of some macro environment, a large scale of animal
extinction may occur.
Species Diversity
Species
diversity is academically defined as the species inhabit in a certain area which
includes two aspects.
��
Species Abundance
Species Evenness
Species
diversity can be examined by food chains. If the predators of the food chain
live on three kinds of animals, when one of those prey has been less or
existent, the predators themselves can still survive with the other two prey.
On the contrary, if there is only one kind of prey which the predators can live
on with, once the number of the prey changes, the influence will be on the
predators soon.
That
is to say, the higher the species diversity, the greater the potential of
recovering from the expecting disturbance is. The interaction among the
biological groups are more stable with higher species diversity.
How
species diversity is created? First, a stable environment is required. Stability
of environment ensures the species finding their suitable and long-term
inhabits. Generally speaking, when there is more frequent disturbance, the
animals are hard to adjust themselves to the environment. To create a stable
animal community, a safe and sound environment is a prerequisite.
Also,
artificial or natural disturbance can enhance species diversity for example,
natural or man-made migration. The process of the environment changing has made
numerous kinds of micro inhabits lie within which increase the species
diversity.
Observation of Species Diversity on Campus
Students
can observe species diversity on campus wherever the biological environment is
good or not.
Students
can document various kinds of insects or animals to investigate the species
diversity on campus. Identifying each kind of animals may not be so easy for
students. As a result, the documentation will be sufficient instead of
estimation.
There
are two ways for species diversity investigation of newly-established or
metropolitan schools.
First, idolize certain land and observe the change from nothing to something.
Generally speaking, some pioneer plants will soon start to thrive. And then more
and more animals appear thereafter. This observation can be lengthy and tedious
but suitable for periodically documentation. The Fu-Young Park in Taipei city
can serve as a good example for its three-year-change documentation regarding to
environment and species.
Second,
create a mini biological system and make students document the species diversity
of it. The large-scale one can be ecological ponds, edible landscapes of food
and agriculture education while small-scale fish tanks, leaf piles and
earthworms observation tanks. Through the micro-biological system observation,
students can understand there has to be competition when propagating animals and
some may reflect the change of the environment.
Genetic Diversity
Genetic
diversity exists in species which indicates the extent of genetic transforming
including the potential variables that may led to evolution. When encountering
environment changes, those species with high genetic diversity are more likely
to survive.
Since
genetics is not a major theme in elementary school, we therefore focus on
genetic observation, for example the hereditary characters discussed in the
fifth graders’ science textbooks.
The paradise fish is a kind of animal of great genetic diversity. There are so
many subspecies of paradise fish all around the world. They differ from one
another in many respects like caudal fins, dorsal fins, body shapes and colors.
These are the demonstrations of genetic diversity. if some of the subspecies
gets the dominant advantage in the wild habitats, the genetic diversity will be
withered and the possibilities of new species evolution decreased.
The
fact has proved that the pace of insects evolution has been slowing down and the
genetic diversity decreasing. And chance of species extinction is rising.
Conclusion
Biodiversity can be novice for both children and adults. The author would like to propose that the value lies within the biodiversity instead of those general knowledge. Teachers can introduce biodiversity on campus to make students explore and learn how to cherish this planet.